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effects_of_religious_practice_on_education [2017/08/17 15:45]
marri [2.1 Related American Demographics] |
effects_of_religious_practice_on_education [2022/03/23 16:14] (current)
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| | ==========Effects of Religious Practice on Education========== |
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| | Because education is important for all citizens and the government invests heavily in public schooling, any factor that significantly promotes academic achievement is important to the common good. A growing body of research has consistently indicated that the frequency of religious practice is significantly and directly related to academic outcomes and educational attainment. Religiously involved students spend more time on their homework, [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_work_ethic|work harder in school]],((Chandra Muller & Christopher G. Ellison, “Religious Involvement, Social Capital, and Adolescents’ Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,” //Sociological Focus// 34, (2001): 155-183.)) and achieve more as a result.((M. J. Donahue & P.L. Benson, “Religion and the Well-Being of Adolescents,” //Journal of Social Issues// 51, (1995): 145-160.)) |
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| | =====1. Educational Achievement===== |
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| | Increased religious attendance is correlated with higher grades.((Mark D. Regnerus and Glen H. Elder, “Religion and Vulnerability Among Low-Risk Adolescents,” //Social Science Research// 32, (2003): 644, 650. Regnerus and Elder analyzed 9,200 youth from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. They also found that each unit increase in church attendance decreased the likelihood of getting poor grades by 13 percent. \\ J.L. Glanville, D. Sikkink, and E.I. Hernández, “Religious Involvement and Educational Outcomes: The Role of Social Capital and Extracurricular Participation,” //Sociological Quarterly// 49, (2008): 105-137.)) In one study, students who attended religious activities weekly or more frequently were found to have a GPA 14.4 percent higher than students who never attended.((J. L Glanville, D. Sikkink, & E. I. Hernández, “Religious Involvement and Educational Outcomes: The Role of Social Capital and Extracurricular Participation,” //Sociological Quarterly// 49, (2008): 105–137.)) Students who frequently attended religious services scored 2.32 points higher on tests in math and reading than their less religiously-involved peers.((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (September 2000): 363-370.)) |
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| | More than 75 percent of students who become more religious during their college years achieved above-average college grades.((David S. Zern, “Some Connections Between Increasing Religiousness and Academic Accomplishment in a College Population,” //Adolescence// 24, no. 93 (1989): 152. Zern, in his sample of 251, also found that neither past nor present religious practice was related to grade point average in college.)) Religiously involved students work harder in school than non-religious students.((Chandra Muller and Christopher G. Ellison, “Religious Involvement, Social Capital, and Adolescents’ Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,” //Sociological Focus// 34, (2001): 155-183.)) |
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| | ====1.1 Related American Demographics==== |
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| | According to the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, students who attended religious services weekly or more had a higher average GPA than those who attended religious services less frequently.((Patrick F. Fagan and Scott Talkington, "'Grade Point Average' by Current Religious Attendance and Structure of Family of Origin," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-109.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-109.pdf|Chart]]) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-109.pdf|{{ :grade_point_average_by_current_religious_attendance.jpg?500 |"Grade Point Average"}}]] |
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| | The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth also showed that 26 percent of students who worshiped at least weekly received mostly A’s, followed by those who attended religious services between one and three times a month (21 percent), those who attended religious services less than once a month (18 percent), and those who never attended religious services (16 percent).((Patrick F. Fagan and Scott Talkington, "'Likely to Receive Mostly A’s' by Structure of Family of Origin and by Current Religious Attendance," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-100.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-100.pdf|Chart]] Below) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-100.pdf|{{ :likely_to_receive_mostly_a_s_by_religious_attendance.jpg?500 |"Students Who Received Mostly A's at School"}}]] |
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| | Similarly, teenagers who attended religious activities weekly or more had the highest average combined GPA for English and Math (2.9), while those who never attended religious activities had the lowest (2.6).((Patrick Fagan, Kirk A. Johnson and Jonathan Butcher, "A Portrait of Family and Religion in America" //The Heritage Foundation//, (2006): chart 20, based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. \\ Patrick F. Fagan, "Religious Attendance and School Performance of U.S. High School Students," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-1-3-149.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-1-3-149.pdf|Chart]] Below) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-1-3-149.pdf|{{ :chart-_average_gpa_in_english_and_math_by_religious_practice.jpg?500 |Combined Average in English and Math}}]] |
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| | =====2. Educational Attainment===== |
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| | Popular opinion holds that the more educated people are, the less religious they are. However, according to the Pew Research Center,((Pew Research Center, "In America, Does More Education Equal Less Religion?" (April 26, 2017), available at [[http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/04/25115302/Religion-and-education-FULL-REPORT.pdf]])) college-educated Christians in the United States are as—and in some cases more—observant that less educated Christians.((According to the Pew Report, the opposite holds true for Jews and “Religious Nones” (Atheists, Agnostics, or Nothing in Particular): the most highlight educated tend to be the least religious.)) Frequent religious practice is positively correlated with higher educational aspirations.((Mark D. Regnerus, //Making the Grade: The Influence of Religion upon the Academic Performance of Youth in Disadvantaged Communities//, University of Pennsylvania, Center for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society, 2001, no. 3.)) Students who attended church weekly while growing up had significantly more years of total schooling by their early thirties than peers who did not attend church at all.((L.D. Loury, “Does Church Attendance Really Increase Schooling?” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 43, (2004): 119-127.)) Both Jews and Christians are more likely to receive higher education than are the Unaffiliated.((Pew Research Center, “Religion and Education Around the World” (December 2016), available at [[http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf.]])) Attending religious services and activities positively affects [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_poor_communities|inner-city youths]]’ school attendance, [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_work_ethic|work activity]], and allocation of time—all of which are further linked to reduced likelihood to be deviant.((Richard B. Freeman, //Who Escapes? The Relation of Churchgoing and Other Background Factors to the Socioeconomic Performance of Black Male Youths from Inner-City Tracts//, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper no. 1656 (June 1985).)) |
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| | Frequent religious attendance correlates with lower dropout rates and greater school attachment.((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (September 2000): 363-370.)) Similarly, frequent religious attendance resulted in a five-fold decrease in the likelihood that youth would skip school, compared to those who seldom or never attended.((Douglas M. Sloane and Raymond H. Potvin, “Religion and Delinquency: Cutting Through the Maze,” //Social Forces// 65, no. 1 (September 1986): 87-105.)) |
| | ====2.1 Related American Demographics==== |
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| | According to the National Survey of Children's Health, parents whose children attended worship at least weekly were less likely to be contacted by their children’s school about behavior problems than parents whose children worshiped less frequently.((This chart draws on data collected by the National Center for Health Statistics in the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) in 2003. The data sample consisted of parents of 102,353 children and teens in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. 68,996 of these children and teens were between six and 17 years old, the age group that was the focus of the study. The survey sample in this age range represented a population of nearly 49 million young people nationwide \\ Nicholas Zill, "Parents Contacted by School about Their Children’s Behavior Problems and Religious Attendance," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-52-54-166.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-52-54-166.pdf|Chart]] Below) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-52-54-166.pdf|{{ :parents_contacted_about_children_s_behavior_by_religion.jpg?500 |Percent of Children Whose Parents Were Contacted by School about Children's Behavior Problems}}]] |
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| | The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth showed that 87 percent of students who attended weekly religious services received a high school degree. They were followed by those attended at least monthly (81 percent), those who attended less than monthly (76 percent), and those who never worshiped.((Patrick F. Fagan and Scott Talkington, "'Ever Received a High School Degree' by Structure of Family of Origin and by Current Religious Attendance," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-99.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-99.pdf|Chart]] Below) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-99.pdf|{{ :ever_received_a_high_school_degree_by_current_religious_attendance.jpg?500 |"Ever Received a High School Degree"}}]] |
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| | The same survey revealed that 32 percent of individuals who attended weekly religious services had received a Bachelor’s degree, compared with those who attended religious services at least monthly (27 percent), those who attended less than once a month (19 percent), and those who never attended (14 percent).((Patrick F. Fagan and Scott Talkington, "'Ever Received a Bachelor's Degree' by Current Religious Attendance and Structure of Family of Origin," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-105.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-105.pdf|Chart]] Below) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-105.pdf|{{ :ever_received_a_bachelor_s_degree_by_current_religious_attendance.jpg?500 |"Ever Received a Bachelor's Degree"}}]] |
| | =====3. Religious Families===== |
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| | ====3.1 Non-Religious Motivations for Religious Practice==== |
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| | Religion increases the family’s human capital in many ways. For instance, [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_family_relationships|religiously involved parents]] were more likely to plan successfully for the future and to structure their children’s activities in ways that increased their children’s likelihood of taking advanced math courses and graduating from high school.((Chandra Muller & Christopher G. Ellison, “Religious Involvement, Social Capital, and Adolescents’ Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,” //Sociological Focus// 34, (2001): 155-83.)) Another study showed that family cohesion, which religious practice increases, is associated with increased internal locus of control and academic competence among youth. Family cohesion also influenced the way youth dealt with problems.((Gene H. Brody, Zolinda Stoneman, and Douglas Flor, “Parental Religiosity, Family Processes, and Youth Competence in Rural, Two-Parent African American Families,” //Developmental Psychology// 32, (1996): 701.)) |
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| | A parent who is “intergenerationally altruistic”—that is, cares about the welfare of the child—will participate in religious practice to build up the requisite amount of human capital necessary for a child to become “skilled” (i.e., part of the non-manual labor market). Thus, the future of the child’s education and income are a positive incentive for parents to attend religious activities. Incentive is diminished only if the parent is convinced that the child has no possibility of becoming “skilled,” or if the child has no expressed desire to become “skilled.”((C. Simon Fan, “Religious Participation and Children’s Education: A Social Capital Approach,” //Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization// 65, (2008): 304-309.)) Therefore, altruistic parents can and often will be religious, even if they have little intrinsically religious motivation to be so, in order to transfer the social capital benefits of religious practice to their children. |
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| | ===3.1.1 Related American Demographics=== |
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| | According to the National Survey of Family Growth, 29.3 percent of women aged 35-44 who worshiped at least weekly had attained a bachelor’s degree, followed by those who attended religious services between one and three times a month (28.5 percent), those who attended religious services less than once a month (24.1 percent), and those who never attended religious services (21.8 percent).((These charts draw on data collected by the National Survey of Family Growth, Cycle 6 (2002). The sample consists of women between the ages of 35 and 44 and numbers 2,479. \\ Patrick F. Fagan and D. Paul Sullins, "'Mothers (aged 35-44) Who Have Attained a Bachelor’s Degree' by Religious Attendance and Present Family Structure," Mapping America Project. Available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-92.pdf]])) (See [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-92.pdf|Chart]]) |
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| | [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/MA-92.pdf|{{ :mothers_attained_bachelor_s_by_religious_attendance.jpg?500 |"Women Who Have Attained a Bachelor's Degree"}}]] |
| | ====3.2 Parents' Expectations==== |
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| | In their study of secular academic performance, Hanson and Ginsburg of Catholic University and the US Department of Education found that parental educational expectation was among the factors that had the strongest impact on adolescents’ high-school outcomes.((Sandra L. Hanson & Alan L. Ginsburg, “Gaining Ground: Values and High School Success,” //American Educational Research Journal// 25, no. 3 (1988): 356.)) The greater the parents’ religious involvement, the more likely they would have higher educational expectations for their children and would communicate with their children about their education.((Chandra Muller and Christopher G. Ellison, “Religious Involvement, Social Capital, and Adolescents’ Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,” //Sociological Focus// 34, no. 2 (May 2001): 155-183.)) Christian Smith of Notre Dame University, moreover, found that parents’ church attendance increased the probability that their adolescent children knew more clearly what their parents expected and that their parents would be upset if they were [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_sexual_behavior|sexually involved]], [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_substance_abuse|used drugs, drank alcohol]], got into fights, or skipped school.((Christian Smith, “Religious Participation and Parental Moral Expectations and Supervision of American Youth,” //Reviews of Religious Research// 44, no. 4 (2003): 414-424, 418.)) |
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| | ====3.3 Family Structure==== |
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| | [[effects.of.marriage.on.children.s.education|Marital stability]] is another form of human capital that advances educational attainment, while its opposite, [[effects_of_divorce_on_children_s_education|divorce]], hinders it.((Anguiano P. V. Ruben, “Families and Schools: The Effect of Parental Involvement on High School Completion,” //Journal of Family Issues// 25, no. 1 (2004): 61-85. \\ Timothy J. Biblarz & Greg Gottainer, “Family Structure and Children’s Success: A Comparison of Widowed and Divorced Single-Mother Families,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 62, (2000): 533-48.)) Religious practice plays its part here also. Religious heterogamy (when the spouses belong to different denominations) increases the likelihood of divorce,((Evelyn L. Lehrer, "Religion as a Determinant of Marital Fertility," //Journal of Population Economics// 9, no. 2 (1996): 173-96.)) while homogamy (when both spouses are members of the same denomination) increases the likelihood of marital stability and happiness.((Tim B. Heaton & Edith L. Pratt, "The Effects of Religious Homogamy on Marital Satisfaction and Stability,” //Journal of Family Issues// 11, (1990): 191-207. |
| | \\ Evelyn L. Lehrer & Carmel U. Chiswick, “Religion as a Determinant of Marital Stability,” //Demography// 30, no. 3 (1993): 385-404.)) |
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| | Carmel Chiswick, Professor of Economics at the University of Illinois at Chicago, found that “[p]eople with high levels of religious human capital tend to select spouses who also have high levels, forming family units for which the home production of religious education is more efficient.”((Carmel U. Chiswick, “An Economic Perspective on Religious Education: Complements and Substitutes in a Human Capital Portfolio” //Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) DP// no. 1456 (January 2005): 14.)) This phenomenon of [[effects_of_family_structure_on_children_s_education|high homogamy]] and practice seems to be operating in the American home-schooling movement.((Lawrence M. Rudner, “Achievement and Demographics of Home School Students: 1998,” //Education |
| | Policy Analysis Archives// 7, no. 8 (1999):1-33.)) It also has led to less conflict and greater happiness for couples,((V.R.A. Call & T.B. Heaton, “Religious Influence on Marital Stability,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 36, (1997): 382-92.)) as well as [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_family_relationships|better relationships between children and parents]].((Glen H. Elder, Jr.& Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 158.)) In turn, this adds to family satisfaction, which has a larger effect than any of the religious variables in protecting against risky behaviors that undermine educational attainment.((Mark D. Regnerus and Glen H. Elder, “Religion and Vulnerability Among Low-Risk Adolescents,” //Social Science Research// 32, (2003): 644, 650.)) |
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| | =====4. Religious Communities===== |
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| | ====4.1 Religious Schools==== |
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| | Attendance at religious schools influences educational performance and attainment. Significant literature exists detailing the strength of Catholic education in advancing the academic achievement of its pupils.((Mavis Grovenia Sanders, “Breaking the Cycle of Reproduction: The Effect of Communities, Families, and Schools, on the Academic Achievement of Urban African American Youth,” PhD diss., //Stanford University// (1995):154; J.S. Coleman, & T. Hoffer, //Public and Private Schools: The Impact of Communities//, (New York: Basic Books, 1987).)) One study described the supportive network of such parochial and private schools as equivalent to a “social neighborhood” that reduces youths’ risks and promotes academic achievement.((Frank F. Furstenberg , Jr. et al., “Looking Ahead: Patterns of Success in Late Adolescence,” in //Managing to Make It: Urban Families and Adolescent Success// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 222.)) Throughout a large body of literature investigating the comparative educational effectiveness of religious and secular schools, findings such as the following are typical: “Roman Catholic students in Catholic controlled schools are more likely to plan for college than Catholic pupils in public schools—even if Catholics are in the majority at the public school.”((A. Lewis Rhodes & Charles B. Nam, “The Religious Context of Educational Expectations,” //American Sociological Review// 35, no. 2 (1970): (253-267), 264.)) |
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| | In addition, religious schooling has a positive long-term impact on adolescents’ religiosity, especially in high school, and especially if students receive a considerable amount of classroom instruction in religion.((B. Spilka, R.W. Hood Jr., & R. L. Gorsuch, //The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach//, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985.)) Low-income students in schools that “stress academics and religion, possess high student morale, and encourage the centrality of religion and the development of community of faith” tend to be more committed to their faith and church than their counterparts in schools that do not have such emphases.((Peter L. Benson, Michael J. Donahue, & Joseph A. Erickson, “Adolescence and Religion: A Review of the Literature from 1970 to 1986,” //Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion// 1, (1989): 153-181, 167.)) It is not surprising, then, that a 2015 Rasmussen Report found that 61 percent of parents with school-aged children believe there should be more religion in public schools.((Rasmussen Reports, “Americans Want Christmas, More Religion in Schools”, (December 2015), available at [[http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/lifestyle/holidays/december_2015/americans_want_christmas_more_religion_in_schools.]])) |
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| | ====4.2 Peers==== |
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| | Good friendships, peer networks, and youth associations that help adolescents live more fully engaged lives, while discouraging risky behavior, may have a positive effect on educational outcomes. Though the area of peer relationships has received some attention throughout the past 50 years, most research has focused on dysfunctional behaviors and behavioral interventions. The social science understanding of the operations and dynamics of positive friendships are limited.((T.J. Dishion, “Cross-Setting Consistency in Early Adolescent Psychopathology: Deviant Friendships and Problem Behavior Sequelae,” //Journal of Personality// 68, no. 6 (2000): 1109-1126; T.J. Dishion, David W. Andrews & Lynn Crosby, “Antisocial Boys and Their Friends in Early Adolescence: Relationship Characteristics, Quality, and Interactional Process,” //Journal of Child Development// 66, no. 1 (1995): 139-151.)) Within the limited body of research available, however, there are indications that networks of religious peers yield positive benefits. One study showed that a student’s values, as well as peers’ values, can have positive effects on out-of-school behaviors.((Sandra L. Hanson & Alan L. Ginsburg, “Gaining Ground: Values and High School Success,” //American Educational Research Journal// 25, no. 3 (1988): 356.)) Another study reported that peers’ values mediate, in part, the positive effect of religious involvement on teens’ educational expectations.((Chandra Muller & Christopher G. Ellison, “Religious Involvement, Social Capital, and Adolescents’ Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,” //Sociological Focus// 34, (2001): 169.)) Elder and Conger also demonstrated that religious values influence youths’ perception of their friends and that, even at this stage of their lives, they develop [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_marriage|future marriage plans]] in light of their religious beliefs.((Glen H. Elder, Jr.& Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 158.)) Another study discovered that youth participation in religious activities promotes friendships that “aid and encourage academic achievement and engagement.”((J. L. Glanville, D. Sikkink & Hernández, E. I., “Religious Involvement and Educational Outcomes: The Role of Social Capital and Extracurricular Participation,” //Sociological Quarterly// 49, (2008): (105-137), 122.)) |
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| | Religious participation also increases intergenerational closure, a term that describes an adolescent’s affinity for his parents and his parents’ friends. Intergenerational closure, then, encourages role modeling and mentorship, within both the parent-child relationship and relationships with other adults. Religion provides a pathway for children to interact constructively with both their peers and their superiors, which generally encourages improved academic performance.((J. L. Glanville, D. Sikkink & Hernández, E. I., “Religious Involvement and Educational Outcomes: The Role of Social Capital and Extracurricular Participation,” //Sociological Quarterly// 49, (2008): 105-137.)) |
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| | ====4.3 Extracurricular Activities==== |
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| | Structured after-school activities, including religious activities, are also associated with better educational outcomes. In an analysis of data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988, student participation in structured activities, religious activities, and activities with adults during tenth grade had a significant positive impact on educational outcomes when those students were in the twelfth grade.((W. J. Jordan & S.M. Nettles, “How Students Invest Their Time Outside of School: Effects on School-related Outcomes,” //Social Psychology of Education// 3, (2000): 217-243.)) Participation in extracurricular activities produced a greater increase in youths’ educational expectations than participation in church activities did, although both types of activities had a significant positive impact.((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (2000): 363-70.)) Conversely, students who spent more unstructured time (e.g., hanging out with peers) were at greater risk of performing poorly in school.((Meredith Cosden, Gale Morrison, Lisa Gutierrez &Megan Brown, “The Effects of Homework Programs and After-School Activities on School Success,” //Theory Into Practice// 43, no. 3 (2004): 220-226.)) |
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| | Extracurricular church activities help youth reduce those problem behaviors that were putting their academic attainment at risk. The benefits of extracurricular church activities were dramatically demonstrated by one study that found that youths who were highly involved in church-sponsored organizations outside of school had a low level of problem behaviors. While their academic and psychological competence scores were lower than those of peers categorized as “academically competent,” their engagement level in extracurricular activities and community programs distinguished them positively from their peers.((Frank F. Furstenberg , Jr. et al., “How They Fared: Measuring Adolescent Success,” in //Managing to Make It: Urban Families and Adolescent Success// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 62.)) |
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| | A study of high school seniors in the 1988 National Educational Longitudinal Study showed that positive perceptions of religion and frequent attendance at religious activities were related to the following: a) [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_family_relationships|positive parental involvement]], b) positive perceptions of the future, c) positive attitudes toward academics, d) [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_substance_abuse|less frequent drug use]], e) less delinquent behavior, f) fewer school attendance problems, g) [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_work_ethic|more time spent on homework]], h) more frequent volunteer work, i) recognition for good grades, and j) more time spent on extracurricular activities.((Jerry Trusty & Richard E. Watts, “Relationship of High School Seniors’ Religious Perceptions and Behavior to Educational, Career, and Leisure Variables,” //Counseling and Values// 44, no. 1 (1999): 30-40)) |
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| | ====4.4 The Church Community==== |
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| | The community of church members, like the family, plays its part in advancing educational attainment. The strong social bonds of religious groups can supplement the resources available to children, especially those in large families, helping them to achieve higher levels of education.((R. Wuthnow, “Mobilizing Civic Engagement: The Changing Impact of Religious Involvement,” in //Civic Engagement in American Democracy//, ed. T. Skocpol and M. Fiorina (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1999), 331-66.)) Participation in church activities benefits children in all neighborhoods of different income levels, though it particularly benefits children in [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_poor_communities|low income neighborhoods]].((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (2000): 367.)) Interviews with black college students found that their religious communities fostered academic success by providing role models and mentors.((Cheron Byfield, “The Impact of Religion on the Educational Achievement of Black Boys: A UK and USA Study,” //British Journal of Sociology of Education// 29, no. 2 (2008): 189-199.)) |
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| | Elder and Conger provided a detailed account of the effect of the church community on adolescents’ attitudes, expectations, and academic achievement: |
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| | > Surrounded by adults and peers who care about worthy accomplishments, religiously-involved youth tend to score higher than other adolescents on school achievement, social success, confidence in self, and [parents’ report of their] personal maturity((Glen H. Elder, Jr.& Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 161.))… Regular participation in church services and programs strengthened self-concepts of academic achievement, work habits, or discipline… Within the church, young people found guidance and encouragement from congregation members with whom they established strong ties.((Glen H. Elder, Jr. & Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 158.)) |
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| | When they asked the high school freshmen they surveyed to estimate how their peer groups would rank five activities—athletics, school activities, working hard to get good grades, community activities, and church activities—adolescents who were not involved in the church and youth group were most likely to rank athletics first and school activities second.((Glen H. Elder, Jr. & Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 161.)) In contrast, religiously-involved students gave a higher rank to both education and church activities.((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (2000): 367.)) |
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| | Being anchored in a religious community promotes positive relationships among adolescents. One study found that the greater a high school student’s engagement in church activities, the stronger his or her peer competence.((Valarie King, Glen H. Elder, Jr., & Les B. Whitbeck, “Religious Involvement Among Rural Youth: An Ecological and Life-Course Perspective,” //Journal of Research on Adolescence// 7, no. 4 (1997): 431-456, 447.)) Similarly, high school seniors who performed well academically and socially were more likely to have had greater exposure to the disciplines and objectives of the church and the church youth group, and to associate with peers who shared those values.((Glen H. Elder, Jr.& Rand D. Conger, //Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America// (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 159.)) |
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| | For immigrant youth and other ethnic groups, the church or synagogue is often the preferred place to study the language of their heritage and their community. This simultaneously contributes to the formation of a cultural and a religious identity and, as a result, increases the likelihood of educational achievement. |
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| | In their study of Vietnamese immigrant youth, Carl Bankston, Professor of Sociology at Tulane University, and Min Zhou, Professor of Sociology and Asian American Studies at the University of California Los Angeles, found that, while church attendance and parents’ membership in a church correlated to higher grade point averages, church-sponsored programs in language and culture mediated part of the benefit. Rather than impeding the upward mobility of youth, these activities correlated strongly and positively to adolescents’ academic performance. Bankston and Zhou explained this dynamic: |
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| | > Ethnic religious participation … promotes adjustment to the host society, precisely because it promotes the cultivation of a distinctive ethnicity, and membership in this distinctive ethnic group helps young people reach higher levels of academic achievement and avoid dangerous and destructive forms of behavior.((Carl L. Bankston & Min Zhou, “The Ethnic Church, Ethnic Identification, and the Social Adjustment of Vietnamese Adolescents,” //Review of Religious Research// 38, no. 1 (1996): 29-31.)) |
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| | Religious affiliation is important to the cultivation of welcoming communities. Western Christians are less intolerant of contradiction and more willing to take on different perspectives than their Atheist/ Agnostic counterparts.((Uzarevic, Filip, Vassilis Saroglou, and Magali Clobert, "Are Atheists Undogmatic?", //Personality and Individual Differences// 116 (2017): 164-170.)) |
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| | Related to the community and culture effect is Jonathan Gruber’s finding that residing in an area where the demographic majority reflects one’s religious tradition was associated with significantly greater religious involvement and with better outcomes with regard to [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_society|education, income, and marital status]].((Jonathan Gruber, “Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You?” NBER Working Paper, no. 11377 (May 2005).)) |
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| | ====4.5 Disadvantaged Communities==== |
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| | For youth in [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_poor_communities|impoverished neighborhoods]], religious attendance made the greatest difference in academic achievement prospects, according to research in 2001 by Regnerus. As rates of unemployment, poverty, and female-headed households grew in a neighborhood, the impact of a student’s level of religious practice on academic progress became even stronger. |
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| | Regnerus posits that churches uniquely provide “functional communities” for the poor that reinforce parental support networks, control, and norms in environments of disadvantage and dysfunction. In these neighborhoods, families are most likely to build pathways to success for their children when they closely monitor them and when they develop ties to local churches that expose their children to positive role models. Youth in high-risk neighborhoods who regularly attend religious services progress at least as satisfactorily as their peers in low-risk, middle-class neighborhoods: |
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| | “Religious attendance was found to serve as a protective mechanism in high-risk communities in a way that it does not in low risk ones, stimulating educational resilience in the lives of at-risk youth. We argue that adolescents’ participation in religious communities—which often constitute the key sources of neighborhood developmental resources—reinforces messages about working hard and staying out of trouble, orients them toward a positive future, and builds a transferable skill set of commitments and routines.”((Mark D. Regnerus, //Making the Grade: The Influence of Religion upon the Academic Performance of Youth in Disadvantaged Communities//, University of Pennsylvania, Center for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society, no. 3 (2001).)) |
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| | Regnerus went on to suggest that religious affiliation had a positive impact on educational attainment for African–Americans residing in a high-risk neighborhood, even when controlling for family structure, although its effect was strongest for youth living in two-parent families.((Diane R. Brown and Lawrence E. Gary, “Religious Socialization and Educational Attainment Among African Americans: An Empirical Assessment,” //Journal of Negro Education// 60, no. 3 (Summer 1991): 411–426)) The role of religion in building relationships and habits of hard work “reinforces a conventional (as opposed to alternate or illegal) orientation to success and achievement.” Youth religious affiliation in combination with religious families and friends serves to integrate youth into the broader society and shapes their aspirations for education and achievement.((Mark D. Regnerus, “Shaping Schooling Success: Religious Socialization and Educational Outcomes in Metropolitan Public Schools,” //Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion// 39, no. 3 (September 2000): 363-370. |
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| | This entry draws heavily from [[http://marri.us/reasons-for-religion|95 Social Science Reasons for Religious Worship and Practice]], |
| | [[http://marri.us/get.cfm?i=RS15G01|Religious Practice and Educational Attainment]], and |
| | [[http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2006/12/why-religion-matters-even-more-the-impact-of-religious-practice-on-social-stability|Why Religion Matters Even More: The Impact of Religious Practice on Social Stability]].)) |
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| | =====5. Work Ethic of Students===== |
| | //(See [[effects_of_religious_practice_on_work_ethic|Effects of Religious Practice on Work Ethic]])// |
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| | The beneficial effects of religious practice on education are transmitted to the individual student through various pathways within the family of origin and through peers, the church community, and the extended community. For at-risk youth, religious practice reduces socially deviant behavior.((Richard B. Freeman, “Who Escapes? The Relation of Church-Going and Other Background Factors to the Socio-Economic Performance of Black Male Youths from Inner-City Poverty Tracts,” NBER Working Paper, no. 1656 (1985): 11. As cited in Patrick F. Fagan, "Religious Practice and Educational Attainment," Marriage and Religion Research Institute (September 2010), available at [[http://marri.us/wp-content/uploads/Religious-Practice-and-Educational-Attainment.pdf.]])) Regular religious attendance increases the internalization of traditional values and norms, strengthens a sense of internal locus of control and discipline, and increases adolescents’ expectations of higher educational achievement for themselves. In these ways, religious practice is a positive force for staying on track in school. |
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