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effects_of_divorce_on_children_s_health [2017/05/05 14:44]
marri [3. Mental Health]
effects_of_divorce_on_children_s_health [2022/03/23 16:14] (current)
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 +==========Effects of Divorce on Children's Health==========
  
 +=====1. Physical Health=====
 +
 +Parental divorce affects children’s physical health and longevity. Those who experience parental divorce or separation are more likely to have health problems((Paul R. Amato and Bruce Keith, “Parental Divorce and Adult Well-being: A Meta-Analysis,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 53, (1991): 49, 54.)) (often in spite of maternal remarriage((Jane Mauldon, “The Effect of Marital Disruption on Children’s Health,” //Demography// 27, (1990): 444.))) such as a significant increase in injury rates, an increased risk of asthma,((Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives, Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, //To Have and To Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships// (Canberra, Australia, Parliament of Australia: 1998), 35. \\ Kristen Harknett, "Why are Children with Married Parents Healthier? The Case of Pediatric Asthma," //Population Research & Policy Review// 28, no. 3 (2009): 347, 357.)) and increased risk of asthma-related emergencies.((Kristen Harknett, “Why Are Children with Married Parents Healthier? The Case of Pediatric Asthma,” //Population Research and Policy Review// 28, (2009): 361.)) Children whose parents divorce are also more likely to contract cancer of the upper aerodigestive tract, the esophagus, anus, pancreas, lungs, and cervix. Researchers Kari Hemminki and Bowang Chen state, “The results show that offspring of divorced parents have increased cancer risks at tobacco-related, alcohol-related and sex-related sites.”((Kari Hemminki and Bowang Chen, “Lifestyle and Cancer: Effect of Parental Divorce,” //European Journal of Cancer Prevention// 15, (2006): 524.)) A Swedish study showed that young men with divorced parents had a slightly heightened risk of hospitalization and significantly increased risk of [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.behavior|mortality]].((Anders Romelsjo, George A. Kaplan, Richard D. Cohen, Peter Allebeck, and Sven Andreasson, “Protective Factors and Social Risk Factors for Hospitalization and Mortality among Young Men,” //American Journal of Epidemiology// 135, no. 6 (1992): 654.)) 
 +
 +=====2. Longevity=====
 +
 +The child of divorced parents has a higher risk of premature death.((Leslie R. Martin, Howard S. Friedman, Kathleen M. Clark, and Joan S. Tucker, “Longevity Following the Experience of Parental Divorce,” //Social Science and Medicine// 61, (2005): 2182.)) According to one study, parental divorce before the age of 21 is associated with a mortality risk increase of 44 percent((Joseph E. Schwartz, Howard S. Friedman, Joan S. Tucker, Carol Tomlinson-Keasey, Deborah Wingard, and Michael H. Criqui, “Sociodemographic and Psychosocial Factors in Childhood as Predictors of Adult Mortality,” //American Journal of Public Health// 85, (1995): 1241.)) and a lifespan shortened by an average of 4.5 years.((Joseph E. Schwartz, Howard S. Friedman, Joan S. Tucker, Carol Tomlinson-Keasey, Deborah Wingard, and Michael H. Criqui, “Sociodemographic and Psychosocial Factors in Childhood as Predictors of Adult Mortality,” //American Journal of Public Health// 85, (1995): 1243.)) A child’s mortality risk increases when his parents’ divorce occurs before reaching age four.((Gopal K. Singh and Stella M. Yu, “U.S. Childhood Mortality, 1950 through 1993: Trends and Socioeconomic Differentials,” //American Journal of Public Health// 86, (1996): 505-512. \\ Hanna Remes, Pekka Martikainen, and Tapani Valkonen, "The Effects of Family Type on Child Mortality," //European Journal Of Public Health// 21, no. 6 (2011): 688, 690.)) An eight-decade study started by Dr. Lewis Terman in 1921 concluded, 
 +
 +> The long-term health effects of parental divorce were often devastating--it was a risky circumstance that changed the pathways of many of the young Terman participants. Children from divorced families died almost five years earlier on average than children from intact families. Parental divorce, not parental death, was the risk. In fact, parental divorce during childhood was the single strongest social predictor of early death, many years into the future.((Howard Friedman //The Longevity Project: Surprising Discoveries for Health and Long Life from the Landmark Eight Decade Study// (Hay House, Inc, 2011).))
 +
 +=====3. Mental Health=====
 +
 +Divorce wreaks havoc on the psychological stability of many children.((Peter Hill, “Recent Advances in Selected Aspects of Adolescent Development,” //Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry// 34 (1993): 69-99. \\ Linda J. Waite, and Evelyn L. Lehrer, "The Benefits from Marriage and Religion in the United States: A Comparative Analysis," //Population and Development Review// (2003): 259.)) Furthermore, the psychological effects of divorce are persistent: Children from divorced families have more [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.social.skills|emotional]] and [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.behavior|behavioral]] problems,((Andrew J. Cherlin, P. Lindsday Chase-Lansdale, and Christine McRae, “Effects of Parental Divorce on Mental Health throughout the Life Course,” //American Sociological Review// 63, (1998): 245-247. \\ Jennifer M. Weaver and Thomas J. Schofield, "Mediation and Moderation of Divorce Effects on Children’s Behavior Problems," //Journal Of Family Psychology// 29, no. 1 (2015): 45.)) negative feelings,((Fridrik H. Jónsson, Urdur Njardvik, Gudlaug Ólafsdóttir, and Sigurdur J. Grétarsson, “Parental Divorce: Long-term Effects on Mental Health, Family Relations, and Adult Sexual Behavior,” //Scandinavian Journal of Psychology// 41, (2000): 102.)) and less psychological well-being((Paul R. Amato, “Reconciling Divergent Perspectives: Judith Wallerstein, Quantitative Family Research,” //Family Relations// 52, (2003): 338.)) than adults from [[effects.of.marriage.on.mental.health|intact families]].
 +
 +Upon the divorce of their parents, children experience a wide range of emotional reactions, including sadness,((Paul R. Amato and Juliana M. Sobolewski, “The Effects of Divorce and Marital Discord on Adult Children’s Psychological Well-being,” //American Sociological Review// 66, (2001): 917.)) anger,((Judith S. Wallerstein and Joan Berlin Kelly, //Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope With Divorce// (1980; repr., New York, NY: Basic Books, 1996; ). Citations are from the 1996 edition.)) loneliness,((Randy M. Page, “Adolescent Loneliness: A Priority for School Health Education,” //Health Education Quarterly// 15, (1988): 20-23. 
 +\\ Nazmiye Çivitci, Asim Çivitci, and N. Ceren Fiyakali, “Loneliness and Life Satisfactions in Adolescents with Divorced and Non-Divorced Parents,” //Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice// 9, (2009): 518.)) depression (which frequently lasts into later phases of life((Hillevi M. Aro and Ulla K. Palosaari, “Parental Divorce, Adolescence, and Transition to Young Adulthood: A Follow-Up Study,” //American Journal of Orthopsychiatry// 62, (1992): 421. 
 +\\ Ronald L. Simons, Kuei-Hsiu Lin, Leslie C. Gordon, Rand D. Conger, and Frederick O. Lorenz, “Explaining the Higher Incidence of Adjustment Problems Among Children of Divorce Compared with Those in Two-Parent Families,” //Journal of Marriage and the Family// 61, (1999): 1030. 
 +\\ Catherine E. Ross and John Mirowsky, “Parental Divorce, Life-Course Disruption, and Adult Depression,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 61, (1999): 1044. \\ Holly Uphold-Carrier and Rebecca Utz, "Parental Divorce Among Young and Adult Children: A Long-Term Quantitative Analysis of Mental Health and Family Solidarity," //Journal Of Divorce & Remarriage// 53, no. 4 (2012): 256, 261.))), heightened anxiety,((Lisa Strohschein, “Parental Divorce and Child Mental Health Trajectories,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 67, (2005): 1286, 1292)) worry, lower life satisfaction,((Nazmiye Çivitci, Asim Çivitci, and N. Ceren Fiyakali, “Loneliness and Life Satisfactions in Adolescents with Divorced and Non-Divorced Parents,” //Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice// 9, (2009): 518.)) lower self-esteem((Paul R. Amato and Juliana M. Sobolewski, “The Effects of Divorce and Marital Discord on Adult Children’s Psychological Well-being,” //American Sociological Review// 66, (2001): 917. 
 +\\ Paul R. Amato, “Children of Divorce in the 1990s: An Update of the Amato and Keith (1991) Meta-Analysis,” //Journal of Family Psychology// 15, (2001): 366.)) and self-confidence,((Michael Workman and John Beer, “Aggression, Alcohol Dependency, and Self-consciousness among High School Students of Divorced and Non-divorced Parents,” //Psychological Reports// 71, (1992): 279-286.)) fear, yearning, rejection, conflicting loyalties, and a sense of fault for their parents’ problems.((Berthold Berg and Lawrence A. Kurdek, “Children’s Beliefs about Parental Divorce Scale: Psychometric Characteristics and Concurrent Validity,” //Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology// 55, (1987): 716.)) An analysis by David Popenoe of the National Survey of Children found that divorce was associated with a higher incidence of several mental health problems in children: depression; withdrawal from friends and family; aggressive, impulsive, or hyperactive behavior; and either behaving disruptively or withdrawing from [[effects_of_divorce_on_children_s_education|participation in the classroom]].((Wells, Rankin, Demo, and Acock. As cited in David Popenoe, //Life Without Father// (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996), 62.)) Parental divorce may also contribute to the development of mood disorders, bipolar I disorder, dysthymia (mild chronic depression), depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.((Tracie O. Afifi, Jonathan Boman, William Fleisher, and Jitender Sareen, “The Relationship between Child Abuse, Parental Divorce, and Lifetime Mental Disorders and Suicidality in a Nationally Representative Adult Sample,” //Child Abuse and Neglect// 33, (2009): 142-143.))
 +
 +When children experience parental divorce before age five, they are particularly vulnerable to emotional conflicts at the time of their parents’ separation.((Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives, Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, //To Have and To Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships// (Canberra, Australia: Parliament of Australia, 1998), 35.)) They will frequently cling to their parents and “regress” to bedwetting and [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.behavior|other behaviors]] more characteristic of younger children. Older children, rather than clinging, frequently withdraw from home life and [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.sexual.activity|seek intimacy]] elsewhere.((Martin P. M. Richards and Maureen Dyson, //Separation, Divorce and the Development of Children: A Review// (London, UK: Department of Health and Social Security, 1982, unpublished report to the DHSS). As cited in Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, //To Have and To Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships// (Canberra, Australia, 1998), 34.)) If divorce occurs while the children are teenagers (12 to 15 years old), they tend to react in one of two very different ways: by attempting to avoid growing up or by attempting to “speed through” adolescence.((Murray M. Kappelman, “The Impact of Divorce on Adolescents,” //American Family Physician// 35, (1987): 200-206.)) Early [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.sexual.activity|sexual activity]], [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.behavior|substance abuse or dependence]], [[effects.of.divorce.on.children.s.behavior|hostile behavior]], and depression are all more likely to occur following divorce. These reactions are most likely if the parents divorced prior to age five, slightly less so if they divorce after age 10, and seemingly least of all during the five- to 10-year-old phase.((David M. Fergusson, John Horwood, and Michael T. Lynsky, “Parental Separation, Adolescent Psychopathology, and Problem Behaviors,” //Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry// 33, (1994): 1122-1131.)) 
 +
 +Divorce is related to increased depression and anxiety for both boys and girls of all ages.((Lisa Strohschein, “Parental Divorce and Child Mental Health Trajectories,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 67, (2005): 1296.)) However, boys find parental divorce more emotionally disturbing than girls do,((Ronald L. Simons, Kuei-Hsiu Lin, Leslie C. Gordon, Rand D. Conger, and Frederick O. Lorenz, “Explaining the Higher Incidence of Adjustment Problems Among Children of Divorce Compared with Those in Two-Parent Families,” //Journal of Marriage and the Family// 61, (1999): 1030.)) and “boys with divorced parents tended to be more depressed than those from two-parent families regardless of the psychological adjustment, level of conflict, or [[effects_of_divorce_on_family_relationships|quality of parenting]] manifested by their parents.”((Ronald L. Simons, Kuei-Hsiu Lin, Leslie C. Gordon, Rand D. Conger, and Frederick O. Lorenz, “Explaining the Higher Incidence of Adjustment Problems Among Children of Divorce Compared with Those in Two-Parent Families,” //Journal of Marriage and the Family// 61, (1999): 1020.)) 
 +
 +Psychological problems are less severe for those whose pre-divorce families were high-conflict families.((Susan M. Jekielek, “Parental Conflict, Marital Disruption and Children’s Emotional Well-Being,” //Social Forces// 76, (1998): 905-935. As cited in Catherine E. Ross and John Mirowsky, “Parental Divorce, Life-Course Disruption, and Adult Depression,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 61, (1999): 1044.)) According to Paul Amato of the Department of Sociology at Pennsylvania State University, child and adult well-being may actually improve after the end of an extremely conflicted marriage.((Paul R. Amato, “The Consequences of Divorce for Adults and Children,” //Journal of Marriage and Family// 62, (2000): 1282.)) 
 +=====4. Intergenerational Effects=====
 +//(See [[long_term_effects_of_divorce|Long Term Effects of Divorce]])//
 +
 +The British National Longitudinal study of children born in 1958 found that those who experienced parental divorce between ages seven through 16 experienced significant increases in their risk of psychopathology.((P. Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, Andrew J. Cherlin, and Kathleen E. Kiernan, “The Long-term Effects of Parental Divorce on the Mental Health of Young Adults: A Developmental Perspective,” //Child Development// 66, (l995): 1614-1634.)) A large Finnish study found that 22-year-old children of divorced parents experienced more job loss, that sons experienced more conflict with supervisors and teachers, and that daughters experienced more interpersonal conflict.((Hillevi M. Aro and Ulla K. Palosaari, “Parental Divorce, Adolescence, and Transition to Young Adulthood: A Follow-up Study,” //American Journal of Orthopsychiatry// 63, (1992): 424-425)) A large sample from Sweden (over 14,000 participants) confirms the negative effects of parental divorce on mental health, no matter the socioeconomic status of the family.((Duncan W. G. Timms, //Family Structure in Childhood and Mental Health in Adolescence//  no. 32, University of Stockholm, Sweden: Project Metropolitan Research Report, Department of Sociology, 1991, 93. As cited in David Popenoe, //Life without Father// (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996), 58.)) German research yields similar findings,((Hans-Christoph Steirthausen, Sigrid von Aster, and Dietmar Göbel, “Family Composition and Child Psychiatric Disorders,” //Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry// 26, (1987): 242-246.)) as does an Australian parliamentary report.((Wadsworth (1984), Kuh and Mclean (1990). As cited in Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives, Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, //To Have and To Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships// (Canberra, Australia, Parliament of Australia: 1998), 35.
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 +\\
 +This entry draws heavily from [[http://marri.us/research/research-papers/the-effects-of-divorce-on-children/|Effects of Divorce on Children]].))